UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

«»««•    ■    w^w       «.r-       .«*>»•««■■■    «...._  8ENJ.     IDE     WHEELER,     PRESIDENT 

COLLEGE    OF    AGRICULTURE  thomas  forsyth  hunt,  dean  and  d.rector 

BERKEL ry  H-  E-  V*N    NORMAN'  vice-director  and  dean 

t'*'*c'^t  *  University    Farm    School 

CIRCULAR  No.  123 

(October,  1914) 

FUNDAMENTAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  CO-OPERATION 
IN   AGRICULTURE 

BY 
G.  HAEOLD  POWELL* 


The  co-operative  organization  differs  fundamentally  from  the 
capital  stock  corporation  conducted  for  profit.  A  capital  stock  cor- 
poration for  profit  is  organized  to  return  an  earning  and  a  profit  on 
the  capital  used  in  the  business.  The  basis  of  administration,  control 
and  the  distribution  of  earnings  is  the  capital  invested  in  the  under- 
taking. In  a  co-operative  organization,  the  basis  of  control  is  the 
membership,  where  each  votes  equally  irrespective  of  the  volume  of 
his  business ;  though  the  basis  of  control  is  often  made  the  product  of 
the  members,  where  each  votes  in  proportion  to  the  volume  of  business 
contributed,  while  the  earnings  in  either  case,  if  they  occur,  are 
returned  to  the  member  in  proportion  to  the  volume  of  business  he 
transacts  through  the  organization.  The  basis  of  the  co-operative 
organization  is  men ;  of  the  capital  stock  corporation,  money.  Capital 
cannot  co-operate ;  products  cannot  co-operate ;  only  men  can  co- 
operate. When  the  degree  of  co-operation  of  a  member  is  measured  by 
the  capital  or  the  volume  of  business  contributed,  then  the  members 
as  men  are  not  co-operating;  either  capital  or  a  product  is  the  basis 
of  co-operation  through  the  member  as  the  medium. 

CONFUSION  IN  THE  USE  OF  THE  TERM  "  CO-OPERATION" 

There  is  much  confusion  in  the  use  of  the  term  "co-operation"  as 
applied  to  agricultural  efforts.  It  is  commonly  applied  to  any  group 
of  farmers  who  associate  themselves  together.  They  may  organize  as 
members  of  a  voluntary  unincorporated  association  of  individuals;  or 
as  an  incorporated  capital  stock  association  to  handle  farm  crops  for 
profit  or  for  other  purposes,   or  as  non-profit  corporations  without 

*  General  Manager  of  the  California  Fruit  Growers '  Exchange ;  Former  As- 
sistant Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  and  Former  Pomologist  in  Charge 
Fruit  Transportation  and  Storage  Investigations,  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 


capital  stock.  In  California,  for  example,  the  term  is  applied  to  both 
proiit  and  non-profit  corporations  organized  to  handle  farm  products, 
whether  organized  and  controlled  by  the  producers  themselves,  or  by 
others.  In  other  parts  of  the  country,  the  same  uncertain  use  of 
the  term  is  applied  to  various  kinds  of  agricultural  movements.  The 
term  needs  to  be  defined  by  the  federal  and  state  statutes.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  its  use  as  applied  to  business  organizations  in  agriculture 
should  be  restricted  to  incorporated  associations,  societies,  exchanges, 
or  agencies  which  are  formed  exclusively  for  the  benefit  of  the  mem- 
bers ;  whose  voting  power  is  based  on  equality  of  membership ;  whose 
membership  is  confined  exclusively  to  active  producers,  the  member- 
ship ceasing  to  exist  when  the  producer  withdraws  from  the  organiza- 
tion, and  whose  earnings  are  distributed  on  the  basis  of  the  product, 
rather  than  on  the  capital  contributed  by  each  member,  after  a  fair 
rate  of  interest  is  paid  for  the  use  of  capital  actually  employed  in 
the  business,  if  any.  and  other  overhead  charges  are  deducted.  A  co- 
operative organization,  therefore,  is  not  a  corporation  in  which  the 
capital  is  contributed  primarily  in  order  that  it  may  earn  a  profit ; 
nor  one  composed  of  producers  and  non-producers ;  nor  one  in  which 
the  producer's  product  is  handled  by  a  corporation  for  the  benefit  of 
the  stockholders  rather  than  for  that  of  the  members;  nor  one  in 
which  the  membership  is  not  under  the  control  of  the  organization  ;  nor 
one  in  which  the  members  do  not  actually  control  the  organization. 
It  is  an  association  of  farmers  who  unite  in  an  effort  to  handle  their 
common  interests  through  an  agency  which  is  controlled  by  them,  on 
the  principle  of  an  industrial  democracy,  and  exclusively  for  their 
benefit. 

FORMS  OF  CO-OPERATIVE  ASSOCIATIONS 

A  co-operative  association  may  be  incorporated  as  a  capital  stock 
corporation  or  as  a  non-profit  corporation  without  capital  stock.  If 
formed  as  a  capital  stock  corporation  it  may  still  be  legally  co-operative 
if  the  laws  under  which  it  is  formed  permit  the  members  to  manage 
its  affairs  along  co-operative  lines,  or  if  the  statute  provides  the  method 
of  voting,  the  method  of  transferring  stock,  the  limitation  of  mem- 
bership and  the  distribution  of  earnings  according  to  co-operative 
principles.  There  has  been  little  effort  by  the  states  to  enact  laws 
that  will  permit  the  organization  of  purely  co-operative  associations 
of  farmers.  It  is  therefore  impossible  in  most  states  for  an  association 
to  be  formed  that  can  operate  securely  along  co-operative  principles, 
though  as  a  matter  of  fact  many  associations  so  formed  do.  by  the 
consent  of  the  stockholders,  actually  operate  co-operatively. 


A  STOCK  CORPORATION  NOT  THE  FORM  FOR  A  CO-OPERATIVE 

ORGANIZATION 

The  stock  corporation  as  defined  by  the  statutes  of  most  states  is 
not  the  form  under  which  to  incorporate  a  farmers'  business  organiza- 
tion, though  most  of  the  so-called  co-operative  associations  have  been 
incorporated  under  the  stock  corporation  statutes.  The  stock  cor- 
poration laws  have  been  enacted  primarily  to  meet  the  needs  of  capital, 
not  primarily  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  may  use  the  facilities  of 
the  corporation.  The  membership  in  such  organizations  is  not  under 
legal  control,  because  the  right  to  sell  the  stock  is  a  legal  incident  of 
its  ownership.  A  stockholder  may  sell  his  farm  and  continue  to  be 
a  stockholder  in  a  stock  corporation  and  still  have  the  right  to  examine 
the  affairs  of  the  association,  or  he  may  sell  his  stock  to  some  one  who 
is  not  interested  in  the  organization,  or  who  may  even  be  antagonistic 
to  it :  or  he  may  withdraw  his  membership  and  still  remain  a  stock- 
holder. There  is  no  legal  way  by  which  the  stock,  and  therefore  the 
control  of  the  corporation,  can  be  confined  to  the  membership  after 
the  stock  has  once  been  issued,  unless  the  association  is  able  to  take 
over  the  stock  and  hold  it  as  a  trustee,  until  it  can  be  re-sold  to  a 
member.  Neither  is  the  voting  powder  of  the  stockholders  under  con- 
trol in  a  stock  corporation,  because  the  voting  power  is  generally 
proportional  to  the  number  of  shares  held  by  each  stockholder. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  most  of  the  so-called  co-operative  associations 
of  the  country  have  been  incorporated  as  capital  stock  corporations 
in  the  absence  of  other  statutes  under  which  they  could  be  incor- 
porated and  many  of  them  operate  by  mutual  agreement  expressed 
in  the  articles  of  incorporation,  or  in  the  by-laws,  on  strictly  co- 
operative principles :  others  vote  in  accordance  with  stock  ownership, 
fix  a  maximum  amount  of  stock  to  be  owned  by  any  member,  and 
apportion  the  stock  on  the  bearing  acreage  of  the  members,  but  make 
no  profits  on  capital.  These  organizations  usually  provide  that  a 
withdrawing  member  shall  offer  his  stock  to  the  association  before 
he  can  sell  it  outside,  a  provision  that  is  useless  if  the  association  is 
not  able  to  take  it  over. 

They  may  provide  also  that  all  the  earnings  shall  be  returned  to 
the  members  pro-rated  on  the  business  transacted  by  each  after  interest 
is  paid  on  the  capital  invested  and  other  overhead  charges  are  de- 
ducted. The  stockholders  may  vote  equally  by  agreement  and  the 
capital  invested  may  be  paid  only  a  fair  rate  of  interest  for  its  use. 
The  difficulty  in  such  organizations  lies  in  the  fact  that  some  of  the 
conditions  to  which  they  agree  are  not,  in  case  of  trouble,  enforceable 


in  the  courts,  and  the  organization  ceases  to  be  co-operative  when  the 
stockholders  desire  for  any  reason  to  exercise  their  legal  privileges 
along  nonco-operative  lines. 

As  a  result  of  organizing  a  so-called  co-operative  association  under 
the  usual  stock  corporation  laws,  many  of  these  organizations  often 
pass  into  the  hands  of  non-producers  or  of  rival  interests,  following 
the  withdrawal  of  members  through  the  sale  of  farms  and  the  sale 
and  transfer  of  stock ;  or  a  partial  control  may  be  held  by  dissatisfied 
stockholders  who  have  withdrawn  as  members. 


NON-PKOFIT   COKPOBATIONS 

In  other  states,  especially  in  California,  the  statute  provides  for 
the  incorporation,  organization,  management  and  co-operation  of  agri- 
cultural, non-profit  associations  which  do  not  have  capital  stock  and 
whose  business  is  not  carried  on  for  profit.  These  associations  issue 
certificates  of  membership  to  each  member  but  the  membership  cannot 
be  transferred  or  assigned  to  any  other  person,  nor  is  the  purchaser  of 
a  property  of  a  member  entitled  to  membership  by  virtue  of  such  pur- 
chase. In  such  associations  the  basis  of  voting  and  the  control  of  the 
membership  is  subject  to  rules  made  by  the  association.  These  asso- 
ciations may  accumulate  a  capital  with  which  to  transact  business 
though  the  capital  is  not  in  the  form  of  a  paid-in  capital  stock.  It 
may  be  accumulated  pro  rata  from  the  proceeds  of  the  shipments  of 
the  members,  or  in  any  other  way  agreed  to  by  the  members. 

In  Nebraska  co-operation  has  been  defined  and  given  a  legal  status.  The  law 
says,  ' '  for  the  purpose  of  this  act,  the  words  '  co-operative  company,  corporation, 
or  association'  are  defined  to  mean  a  company,  corporation  or  association  which 
authorizes  the  distribution  of  its  earnings  in  part  or  wholly,  on  the  basis  of,  or 
in  proportion  to,  the  amount  of  property  bought  from  or  sold  to  members,  or  of 
labor  performed,  or  other  service  rendered  to  the  corporation. ' '  It  differs  from 
the  general  incorporation  law  of  Nebraska  by  providing  that  every  co-operative 
corporation  has  the  power  ' '  to  regulate  and  limit  the  right  of  stockholders  to 
transfer  their  stock ;  and  to  make  by-laws  for  the  management  of  its  affairs ;  and 
to  provide  for  the  distribution  of  its  earnings. ' ' 

In  Wisconsin,  a  law  was  passed  in  1911,  Chapter  368,  Laws  of  1911,  which 
provides  for  the  formation  of  "a  co-operative  association,  society,  company 
or  exchange,  for  the  purpose  of  conducting  agricultural,  dairy,  mercantile, 
mining,  manufacturing,  or  mechanical  business  on  the  co-operative  plan."  It 
"may  buy,  sell,  and  deal  in  the  product  of  any  other  co-operative  company 
heretofore  organized  or  hereafter  organized"  as  a  co-operative  association. 
The  law  provides  that  "no  stockholder  in  any  such  association  shall  own 
shares  of  a  greater  par  value  than  one  thousand  dollars  ...  or  be  entitled  to 
more  than  one  vote."  It  provides  that  the  directors  shall  apportion  the 
earnings,  subject  to  revision  by  the  association  at  any  time,"  by  first  paying 


dividends  on  the  paid-up  capital  stock  not  exceeding  six  per  centum  per 
annum,  then  setting  aside  not  less  than  ten  per  centum  of  the  net  profits  for 
a  reserve  fund  until  an  amount  has  been  accumulated  in  said  reserve  fund 
equal  to  thirty  per  centum  of  the  paid-up  capital  stock,  and  five  per  cent  there- 
after for  an  educational  fund  to  be  used  in  teaching  co-operation,  and  the 
remainder  of  said  net  profits  by  uniform  dividend  upon  the  amount  of  purchase 
of  shareholders  and  upon  the  wages  and  salaries  of  employees,  and  one-half 
of  such  uniform  dividend  to  non-shareholders  on  the  amount  of  their  purchases, 
which  may  be  credited  to  the  account  of  such  non-shareholders  on  account  of 
capital  stock  of  the  association;  but  in  productive  associations  such  as 
creameries,  canneries,  elevators,  factories,  and  the  like,  dividends  shall  be  on 
raw  material  delivered  instead  of  on  goods  purchased.  In  case  the  association 
is  both  a  selling  and  a  producing  concern,  the  dividends  may  be  on  both  raw 
material  delivered  and  on  goods  purchased  by  the  patrons. ' '  The  law  provides 
that  no  corporation  or  association  doing  business  for  profit  shall  be  entitled 
to  the  use  of  the  term  "co-operative"  as  part  of  its  corporate  or  business 
name  unless  it  has  complied  with  the  provisions  of  the  act. 


FURTHER  DIFFICULTIES  IN   THE   STOCK   CORPORATION  FORM 
OF  ORGANIZATION 

One  of  the  common  difficulties  in  a  so-called  co-operative  association 
formed  as  a  stock  corporation  results  from  the  payment  of  dividends 
on  the  paid-in  capital  above  a  fair  interest  for  the  use  of  the  capital, 
especially  where  the  capital  contributed  by  the  members  is  not  pro- 
portional to  their  individual  shipments.  The  tendency  in  such  organ- 
izations is  to  pay  high  dividends  on  the  stock.  The  stockholders  gen- 
erally demand  an  unusual  earning  on  the  capital  contributed.  They 
acquire  the  dividend  habit.  They  deduct  an  amount  from  the  proceeds 
from  the  product  of  all  members,  or  from  the  earnings  of  the  com- 
pany, to  pay  the  dividend,  before  returning  the  proceeds  to  the 
growers.  In  some  fruit  growers'  organizations,  dividends  of  20,  30, 
or  even  50  per  cent  have  been  paid  on  the  capital  stock. 

The  difficulty  over  the  payment  of  dividends  usually  arises  with  a 
member  who  is  a  small  stockholder  and  at  the  same  time  a  large 
shipper,  or  when  a  stockholder  ceases  to  be  an  important  shipper.  A 
grower  becomes  dissatisfied  when  he  realizes  that  the  payment  of  a 
profit  to  capital,  whether  taken  from  the  proceeds  of  his  fruit,  or  made 
as  an  earning  on  his  purchases,  are  used  to  enrich  a  stockholder  who 
has  money  invested  in  the  corporation  but  who  has  not  contributed 
to  its  success  except  in  the  original  investment.  Another  source  of 
trouble  in  the  stock  corporation  is  that  the  grower  becomes  dissatisfied 
after  receiving  a  liberal  dividend  on  his  stock,  if  the  business  condition 
of  the  organization  does  not  warrant  its  continued  payment.     In  the 


citrus  industry  these  difficulties  have  usually  been  avoided  by  paying- 
no  dividends  on  the  capital,  or  at  least  a  dividend  not  in  excess  of  the 
customary  rate  of  interest. 

A  farmers'  organization  that  has  been  organized  under  the  usual 
stock  corporation  laws,  is  on  an  uncertain  foundation,  not  alone  from 
the  lack  of  control  of  the  membership,  but  also  because  of  the  conflict 
between  the  capital  and  the  product  of  the  members  whenever  the 
proceeds  derived  from  the  latter  are  reduced  to  pay  an  unusual  rate 
of  interest  on  the  capital  contributed. 

There  are  many  so-called  co-operative  organizations  (shrewdly 
formed)  that  make  an  earning  for  the  corporation  on  the  product  of 
the  grower  by  retaining"  the  control  of  the  facilities  through  which 
the  growers'  fruit  is  handled.  The  packing-  houses  may  be  controlled 
by  the  organizers  and  a  large  dividend  paid  out  of  the  proceeds  of  the 
product  on  the  capital  invested.  The  purchase  of  supplies  may  con- 
tribute a  profit,  low  grade  supplies  may  be  sold  at  the  price  of  high 
grade  material,  and  profits  may  be  made  in  many  other  indirect  ways. 
An  organization  that  pays  a  profit  to  capital  from  the  growers' 
product,  either  for  the  use  of  packing  facilities  or  for  any  other 
service,  is  not  co-operative.  It  is  a  stock  corporation,  operating  for 
the  grower  for  profit  on  capital,  while  a  co-operative  organization  is 
operated  by  the  producers  wholly  for  their  own  benefit,  the  benefits 
being  pro  rated  on  the  use  which  the  member  makes  of  the  organization. 


A  CO-OPERATIVE  ORGANIZATION  MUST  SPRING  PROM  NECESSITY 

A  co-operative  organization  of  farmers  must  be  founded  on  eco- 
nomic necessity  if  it  is  to  be  permanently  success  fid.  The  reason 
for  its  existence  must  lie  in  some  vital  service  which  it  is  expected 
to  perform  if  it  is  to  have  strength  enough  to  live  in  the  face  of  the 
competition  to  which  it  will  be  instantly  subjected.  It  must  com- 
pete with  existing  organizations  and  this  competition  will  be  directed 
towards  eliminating  it ;  it  will  be  viciously  attacked ;  every  conceiv- 
able  form  of  misrepresentation  will  be  levelled  against  it;  the  officers 
will  be  attacked  by  insidious  rumors  concerning  their  ability  or 
integrity;  the  banks,  especially  in  the  newer  sections,  may  be  con- 
trolled by  competitors,  and  may  refuse  to  furnish  the  necessary  credit ; 
and  every  weapon  known  to  competition,  either  legitimate  or  disrepu- 
table, will  be  used  to  put  it  out  of  business. 

The  average  producer  is  not  a  business  man,  nor  is  he  skilled  in 
the  arts  of  competitive  business.   lie  is  naturally  a  strong  individualist, 


He  is  slow  to  delegate  authority  over  his  affairs  to  any  one  and  when 
he  is  face  to  face  with  the  skilful  arguments  of  those  who  aim  to 
break  the  organization  and  keep  him  working  as  an  individual,  he  is 
likely  to  weaken  and  finally  leave  the  organization  unless  he  had  felt 
the  effect  of  hard  times,  a  helplessness  arising  from  a  combination  of 
those  who  buy  or  sell  his  products,  excessive  freight,  or  commission 
charges,  or  other  forms  of  oppression.  It  is  an  historical  fact  that 
the  investment  of  the  farmer  must  have  been  threatened  by  existing 
conditions  before  he  has  been  able,  in  the  past,  to  overcome  his  indi- 
vidualism sufficiently  to  work  with  his  neighbors  in  co-operative  work. 
The  country  is  strewn  with  the  wrecks  of  co-operative  organizations 
that  were  born  prematurely  and  which  died  by  the  wayside,  because 
the  farmer  himself  deserted  in  the  first  real  conflict  with  the  estab- 
lished agencies  that  have  handled  his  business.  Co-operation,  to  be 
successful,  must  be  founded  not  only  on  economic  necessity,  but  it 
must  grow  through  gradual  evolution.  It  must  have  a  small  begin- 
ning and  grow  in  strength  through  experience  step  by  step,  rather 
than  by  leaps  and  bounds.  The  fundamental  mistake  that  is  being 
made  in  many  localities  is  to  form  a  farmers'  organization  all  at  once 
on  the  plan  of  an  organization  that  has  taken  years  to  develop.  The 
plan  may  be  sound  but  a  co-operative  organization  can  only  succeed 
when  given  the  unflinching  support  of  the  members  Avho  through  years 
of  experience  have  acquired  an  appreciation  of  the  fundamentals  that 
underlie  a  successful  association  of  this  kind.  The  success  of  any 
•organization  depends  on  its  members,  not  on  its  form. 


THE  MEMBERSHIP  IN  A  CO-OPERATIVE  ORGANIZATION 

The  membership  in  a  co-operative  organization  should  be  confined 
exclusively  to  those  who  are  producers  and  who.  as  producers,  use  its 
facilities.  The  members  should  be  acquainted  and  have  confidence  in 
each  other.  It  should  never  include  those  who  contribute  capital 
alone  to  it.  Many  organizations  are  formed  by  bankers,  fruit  dealers, 
or  others  who  promote  an  organization  for  the  purpose  of  making  a 
profit  from  it.  They  may  be  formed  in  good  faith  by  business  men 
who  realize  the  value  of  the  co-operative  movement  and  who  are 
willing,  as  a  service,  and  not  for  profit,  to  furnish  the  capital  for  its 
organization.  The  need  for  such  an  organization  must  spring  from 
within,  front  the  necessity  of  the  industry,  and  not  from  a  desire  of 
a  commission  merchant,  a  broker,  or  of  an  ambitious  manager  who 
sees  an  opportunity  of  capitalizing  the  co-operative  movement  for  his 


8 

personal  benefit.  There  are  many  organizations  of  the  latter  type  that 
masquerade  under  the  co-operative  banner,  but  which  are  formed, 
managed,  and  controlled  either  directly  or  indirectly  by  those  who 
make  a  profit  on  the  packing  organizations,  on  the  sale  of  fruit,  on 
the  purchase  of  supplies,  on  railroad  claims  or  trade  rebates,  or  in 
other  indirect  ways.  Such  organizations  are  always  kept  prominently 
before  the  growers  as  co-operative,  a  situation  which,  when  it  exists. 
is  almost  prima  facia  evidence  that  the  co-operative  features  are  for 
the  benefit  of  a  few,  rather  than  for  all  the  members. 

Membership  in  a  co-operative  organization  should  carry  with  it  a 
responsibility  on  the  part  of  the  member  strong  enough  to  carry  it 
through  adversity  of  every  kind.  To  feel  this  responsibility,  the 
member  must  of  course  feel  the  necessity  for  the  organization;  he 
must  feel  that  he  is  a  part  of  it ;  that  the  organization  is  his,  developed 
and  managed  to  promote  and  protect  his  interests.  If  the  association 
is  formed  by  the  members  to  meet  their  economic  needs,  this  feeling 
of  responsibility  pervades  the  membership,  but  if  the  association  is 
formed  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the  officers  or  any  other  class  of 
people,  or  if  financed  by  well  meaning  people  who  really  desire  its 
success,  an  association  cannot  depend  on  the  loyalty  of  its  members 
in  time  of  adversity. 

One  of  the  problems  that  a  co-operative  association  always  has 
before  it  is  keeping  alive  the  interest  of  its  members.  They  must  be 
a  vital  part  of  the  organization.  They  must  take  an  active  part  in 
its  development.  They  must  keep  posted  on  the  details  of  the  busi- 
ness ;  the  business  methods  of  the  organization  must  be  an  open  book 
to  them.  There  can  be  nothing  mysterious  about  the  management  of 
the  business.  Contracts,  salaries,  trade  or  other  legitimate  rebates, 
railroad  claims,  profits,  or  earnings  of  every  kind — these  must  be  of 
such  a  nature  that  every  producer  can  know  about  them  if  a  co- 
operative association  is  to  maintain  the  loyal  support  and  confidence 
of  its  members.  It  must,  of  course,  win  that  support  by  the  results 
it  accomplishes  and  these  results  must  be  obtained  by  a  business  record 
that  keeps  free  from  suspicion  regarding  the  integrity  of  its  methods, 
and  as  free  as  possible  from  criticism  regarding  its  business  efficiency. 
Every  defect  of  the  organization  will  be  kept  before  the  members  by 
its  competitors,  and  imaginary  defects  created  by  willful  misrepre- 
sentation by  those.who  aim  to  break  down  the  membership,  will  always 
be  prominently  featured. 


VOTING  POWER  OF  MEMBERS 
In  a  strictly  co-operative  organization  a  fundamental  principle 
should  be  "one  man,  one  vote."  It  should  be  a  real  industrial  democ- 
racy in  which  the  members  trust  each  other  and  lean  upon  each  other's 
judgment  as  men.  In  such  an  organization  neither  the  capital  con- 
tributed, not  the  volume  of  business  transacted  should  be  the  basis 
of  the  responsibility  or  influence  of  the  individual  member,  because 
neither  can  co-operate  or  be  made  a  basis  for  lasting  co-operation. 
In  the  European  co-operative  associations  the  "one  man,  one  vote" 
principle  is  applied  as  a  test  to  separate  the  true  co-operative  associ- 
ations from  the  pseudo  co-operative.  Since  co-operation  is  founded 
on  man,  not  on  capital  nor  on  products,  there  is  no  fundamental 
difference  in  principle  where  capital  is  eliminated  and  product  is  sub- 
stituted as  the  basis  of  voting  and  control.  The  control  of  a  co- 
operative association  should  be  founded  on  the  equality  of  member- 
ship, whether  the  member  contributes  a  large  or  a  small  volume  of 
business.  It  is  the  members  who,  as  men,  co-operate  in  these  organ- 
izations. The  history  of  the  co-operative  movement  in  Europe  and 
in  California  shows  that  this  fundamental  basis  is  sound.  In  the 
latter  state,  one  organization,  the  California  Fruit  Growers  Exchange, 
which  was  formed  as  a  stock  corporation,  but  which  operates  strictly 
on  co-operative  principles,  handles  a  business  of  twenty  million  dollars, 
more  or  less,  annually  on  the  ' '  one  man,  one  vote ' '  principle  of  voting. 
The  directors  each  represent  a  business  that  varies  widely  in  volume 
and  in  value,  but  the  "one  man,  one  vote"  principle  of  representation 
has  stood  the  test  of  business  experience  and  has  been  one  of  the 
foundation  stones  on  which  the  success  of  this  organization  has  been 
built.  The  directors  reserved  the  right  when  they  organized  to  vote 
pro  rata  on  the  shipments  represented  by  them,  but  this  method  of 
voting  has  never  been  used  in  twenty  years  of  business  experience. 
The  California  statute  governing  the  non-profit  corporations  without 
capital  stock  permits  the  voting  power  of  members  to  be  equal  or 
unequal.  In  many  of  these  organizations  the  voting  power  and  prop- 
erty rights  of  the  members  is  proportional  to  the  contribution  which 
each  makes  to  the  investment  necessary  for  operation,  the  by-laws  in 
some  citrus  fruit  organizations  providing  that  "members  will  con- 
tribute to  the  investment  necessary  for  operation  in  true  proportion 
to  the  number  of  bearing  acres  of  citrus  orchard  owned  or  controlled 
by  each  member  respectively  bears  to  the  whole  number  of  bearing 
acres  for  which  citrus  fruits  are  delivered  or  engaged  to  be  delivered 
to  the  association  any  time  during  the  year  such  memberships  are 
issued."     Even  with  such  a  provision  in  the  by-laws,  the  "one  man, 


10 

one  vote"  principle  is  generally  used  in  voting  on  the  business  oper- 
ations of  the  organization. 

There  is  a  strong  sentiment  against  the  "one  man,  one  vote" 
principle  of  voting  when  first  presented  to  the  average  producer.  The 
large  producer  fears  control  by  smaller  interests;  the  small  land 
holders,  domination  by  their  larger  neighbors.  The  history  of  the 
co-operative  movement,  both  in  Europe  and  in  the  United  States, 
shows  clearly  that  this  adverse  sentiment  is  a  prejudice  rather  than 
an  actual  weakness  in  practical  operation.  Equality  of  membership 
strengthens  the  desire  to  co-operate,  and  men  work  together  in  business 
harmony  just  as  they  now  do  in  the  equal  control  of  churches,  schools 
and  in  governmental  responsibilities. 

MEMBERSHIP  AGREEMENT 

A  co-operative  organization  to  be  successful  must  be  held  together 
by  a  membership  agreement  or  contract  holding  the  members  together 
for  business  purposes.  In  no  other  way  can  an  association  attain  that 
degree  of  stability  that  is  necessary  in  a  business  undertaking.  The 
association  must  know  definitely  what  it  is  expected  to  do,  the  volume 
of  business  to  be  handled,  the  expenses  to  be  incurred  and  the  prepar- 
ation necessary  to  be  made  to  transact  its  affairs  in  an  orderly,  econom- 
ical manner. 

Voluntary  membership  is  usually  suicidal  in  a  co-operative  associ- 
ation. In  the  last  analysis  the  association  can  only  succeed  when  the 
average  member  believes  that  the  co-operative  principle  is  sound ;  and 
that  conviction  must  be  strong  enough  to  hold  the  members  together 
when  their  opponents  attack  them  insidiously  and  persistently.  This 
faith  must  be  founded  on  the  sound  business  results  of  the  organi- 
zation, as  well  as  on  its  larger  influence  on  the  development  of  the 
industry  as  a  whole.  Unless  the  benefits  of  the  organization  are  large 
enough  to  keep  the  organization  intact,  the  members  cannot  be  held 
together  indefinitely  by  any  form  of  contract;  but  the  human  nature 
of  the  average  farmer  has  not  evolved  to  that  ideal  point  when  a 
temporary  advantage  offered  him  by  an  opponent  may  not  blind  him 
to  the  permanent  advantages  of  the  association  to  which  he  belongs. 
A  membership  agreement  is  a  steadying  influence  on  a  grower  who 
might  be  led  astray  by  misrepresentation  or  by  temporary  dissatis- 
faction. Then,  too,  there  are  large  numbers  of  farmers  who  are  op- 
portunists. They  have  no  interest  in  the  industry  as  a  whole.  They 
are  interested  only  in  their  own  immediate1  sueeess.  In  handling  their 
crops  they  are  rampant  speculators.  They  follow  a  sharp-shooting 
marketing  policy,  trying  to  hit  the  high  spots  presented  by  an  associ- 


11 

ation,  a  buyer,  or  a  commission  merchant  and  giving  but  lukewarm 
allegiance  to  any  individual  or  association.  The  opponents  of  the 
co-operative  system  understand  this  psychological  trait  perfectly,  and 
unless  the  producer  has  formally  bound  himself  to  his  association  by 
a  definite  contract  to  handle  all  his  produce  through  it  for  a  given 
period  of  time  they  draw  heavity  from  the  membership  by  promising 
a  larger  return,  or  by  playing  upon  his  prejudices  in  other  ways. 
It  is  an  historical  fact  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  troubles  and 
failures  in  the  co-operative  movement  have  been  due  to  the  irresponsi- 
bility of  the  membership  whenever  an  association  has  been  subjected 
to  fire ;  and  no  one  not  experienced  in  the  movement  can  have  any 
conception  of  the  degree  to  which  misrepresentation,  insinuation  and 
other  modes  of  creating  disaffection  are  persistently  kept  before  the 
co-operative  producers  by  those  who  make  an  abnormal  profit  when 
the  farmer's  product  is  handled  individually.  The  same  kind  of  mis- 
representation is  used  in  building  up  one  association  as  against  another 
when  those  who  handle  the  business  of  a  co-operative  association  are 
interested  in  profits,  or  derive  their  compensation  from  the  volume  of 
business  handled. 


THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CO-OPERATIVE  ASSOCIATION 

The  success  of  a  co-operative  organization  depends  primarily  on 
the  loyalty  and  stability  of  the  membership ;  it  depends  further  on 
efficiency  in  management.  Efficiency  in  management  cannot  exist 
without  stability  of  membership ;  nor  can  it  be  developed  unless  the 
members  appreciate  the  necessity  of  providing  an  efficient  manage- 
ment. The  difficulty  in  most  co-operative  organizations  is  the  lack 
of  appreciation  of  the  need  of  a  high  order  of  organizing  and  business 
ability  on  the  part  of  the  employees  of  the  association.  The  common 
failure  of  co-operative  associations  is  usually  attributed  to  inefficient 
management ;  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  due  to  the  membership  itself, 
which  has  fallen  short  in  securing  skillful  employees.  The  individual 
producer  is  likely  to  gauge  the  requirements  of  management  by  the 
size  of  his  own  business.  He  falls  short  in  his  estimate  when  he  acts 
on  a  board  of  directors  and  is  charged  with  the  responsibility  of 
providing  a  management  to  handle  successfully  a  collective  business.. 
Inefficient  management  is  a  measure  of  the  degree  of  business  efficiency 
of  those  who  are  charged  with  the  direction  of  the  affairs  of  the  asso- 
ciation ;  and  unless  the  membership  will  sustain  a  board  of  directors 
in  employing  men  of  a  high  order  of  ability  a  co-operative  association 
is  short  lived. 


12 

The  management  of  a  co-operative  organization  is  more  difficult 
than  that  of  an  ordinary  corporation.  The  stockholders,  not  being 
experts  in  the  affairs  of  the  latter,  do  not  often  take  an  active  interest 
in  its  details.  The  producer,  on  the  other  hand,  is  vitally  interested 
in  his  own  business  and  he  is  likely  to  take  an  active  part,  at  least  in 
giving  advice  concerning  the  conduct  of  the  business.  This  is  one 
of  the  most  valuable  assets  in  a  co-operative  organization  if  the  man- 
ager is  big  enough  to  utilize  it.  Through  the  knowledge  of  the  pro- 
ducer in  the  affairs  of  his  association  his  interest  and  sympathy  can 
be  kept  vital.  If  the  management  becomes  autocratic,  the  interest  of 
the  member  dies;  if  it  is  not  big  enough  to  work  out  a  broad,  pro- 
gressive business  policy,  using  such  suggestions  as  are  made  by  the 
producers  in  addition  to  its  own  knowledge  and  experience,  it  in  turn 
loses  its  connection  with  the  association.  A  management  must  possess 
tact,  constructive  ability,  foresightedness,  fearlessness  in  the  conduct 
of  the  business  and  a  clear  conception  of  the  real  underlying  purpose 
of  the  organization,  if  it  is  to  succeed.  The  integrity  of  the  manage- 
ment must  be  beyond  reproach ;  it  must  be  free  from  entangling  busi- 
ness alliances  ■  it  must  be  free  from  the  participation  in  any  secret 
profits  arising  directly  or  indirectly  from  handling  the  business  of 
the  organization;  in  short,  the  dealings  of  the  management  with  the 
organization  must  be  an  open  book,  free  from  questionable  business 
practices  of  every  kind.  The  influence  of  the  management,  next  to 
the  loyalty  of  the  members,  exceeds  all  other  influences  and  the  success 
of  a  co-operative  association  depends  on  its  working  out  in  mutual 
confidence  an  efficient  business  system  that  is  able  to  meet  successfully 
all  conditions  as  they  arise. 

A  CO-OPERATIVE  ORGANIZATION  SHOULD  BE  FOUNDED  ON  A 

SPECIAL  CROP 

A  co-operative  organization  should  be  founded  on  a  special  crop  and 
the  locality  in  which  it  handles  the  product  should  be  comparatively 
restricted.  Special  industries  involve  common  problems  to  be  solved 
by  the  producers,  similar  difficulties  to  overcome,  similar  trade  prac- 
tices and  similar  trade  connections.  The  members  of  an  organization 
that  is  formed  to  handle  fruit,  vegetables,  poultry  and  general  farm 
crops  have  no  common  ground  on  which  to  stand,  and  these  general 
associations  have  not  been  successful  up  to  the  present  time  because 
the  membership  cannot  be  held  together.  The  citrus  fruit  growers 
of  California  are  all  interested  in  increasing  consumption,  in  extending 
markets,  in  reducing  the  cost  of  distribution  and  marketing,  in  secur* 


13 

ing  reasonable  transportation  costs,  and  in  the  same  public  policy 
questions  that  affect  the  industry.  They  have  therefore  developed  a 
vitality  in  their  organizations  that  have  been  attained  in  no  other 
agricultural  industry  in  America.  An  organization  founded  on  dif- 
ferent crops,  on  the  other  hand,  has  a  series  of  totally  different  prob- 
lems to  meet  at  one  time,  different  business  connections  to  form  and 
different  classes  rather  than  one  class  of  opponents  to  meet, 

A  CO-OPERATIVE  ORGANIZATION  MUST  DEVELOP  THE 
INDIVIDUALITY  OF  EACH  LOCALITY 

To  be  successful  a  co-operative  association  must  sustain  and  develop 
the  individuality  and  initiative  of  the  different  localities  in  which  it 
operates.  The  unit  of  the  organization  must  therefore  be  a  locality 
in  which  the  soils,  the  climate  and  other  conditions  produce  a  similar 
grade  of  product.  If  the  products  vary  widely  in  color,  texture,  form 
or  in  other  character,  on  account  of  the  conditions  under  which  they 
are  grown,  the  producers  cannot  be  held  together  because  the  grades 
cannot  be  made  similar.  The  attempt  to  have  a  single  organization 
cover  a  wide  territory  is  therefore  likely  to  fail.  No  amalgamation 
of  the  farmers  of  different  localities  in  a  common  organization  has 
ever  been  successful.  On  the  other  hand,  the  orange  growers  of  one 
locality,  or  of  similar  parts  of  a  locality  which  produce  similar  grades 
of  fruit,  may  organize  to  prepare  their  product  for  market  under 
distinct  local  brands.  Those  of  another  may  do  the  same  thing,  and 
a  large  number  of  local  units  may  be  formed  as  long  as  the  unit 
embraces  a  product  of  similar  grade  and  character.  Then  as  a  matter 
of  economy  and  efficiency  these  local  units  may  federate  and  create 
a.  central  agency  through  which  they  handle  their  common  problems. 
But  each  local  unit  preserves  its  local  character  and  develops  its  local 
pride  and  reputation  by  selling  its  product  under  a  brand  that  is  the 
exclusive  property  of  the  local  association.  In  addition  to  its  local 
brand  it  may  also  add  a  brand  of  the  central  agency  in  order  to  give 
it  greater  selling  power  in  all  parts  of  the  country ;  but  no  local  unit 
should  use  the  brand  of  a  central  agency  exclusively,  without  using 
its  own  brand  at  the  same  time. 

HANDLING,  GRADING,  AND  PACKING 

The  outcome  of  a  co-operative  organization  formed  to  handle  the 
growers'  product  will  succeed  or  fail  on  the  skill  and  integrity  with 
which  the  product  is  harvested,  handled,  graded,  and  packed.  The 
limits  of  this  discussion  will  not  permit  this  part  of  the  subject  to 


14 

be  handled  in  detail.     A  few  fundamental  principles,  however,   can 
be  stated: 

1.  In  the  average  association  the  individual  grower  does  not  possess 
sufficient  skill  to  harvest,  handle,  grade  or  pack  his  product  carefully, 
uniformly  or  attractively  enough  to  permit  the  association  to  establish 
a  standard  of  quality  and  therefore  acquire  a  reputation  for  its  brands 
or  grades.  A  uniform  standard  of  quality  in  the  brands  shipped  by 
an  association  is  fundamental  to  success.  This  seems  like  an  axiom, 
but  the  fact  is  that  this  is  the  rock  on  which  many  co-operative  organ- 
izations have  been  dashed  to  destruction.  Poor  handling  in  harvesting, 
improper  handling  in  preparing  the  product  for  sale,  careless  or  dis- 
honest grading,  or  lack  of  skill  and  knowledge  in  grading  and  packing 
— these  are  common  rather  than  unusual  conditions  in  the  conduct  of 
many  co-operative  associations  where  the  handling  of  the  product  is 
controlled  by  the  individual  members.  The  output  of  an  association, 
therefore,  acquires  no  stable  merchandising  value.  The  brands  are  not 
a  guarantee  of  quality. 

2.  A  reputation  for  uniformity  in  grading  and  packing  can  only 
be  acquired  when  the  product  of  all  of  the  members  is  handled  under 
uniform  conditions.  The  standardization  of  a  product  can  result  only 
from  standardizing  its  handling,  grading,  and  packing. 

3.  A  uniform  product  can  be  established  by  having  the  product 
of  the  individual  members  handled  by  the  members,  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  association,  or  for  the  members  by  the  association.  The 
former  method  is  employed  successfully  in  some  deciduous  fruit  asso- 
ciations; the  latter  is  the  usual  method  in  the  citrus  fruit  associations. 
The  conditions  which  lead  to  either  method  are  local  as  well  as  those 
of  the  industry  in  question.  In  the  citrus  industry  the  crop  is  har- 
vested over  a  long  period  of  time  and  is  comparatively  non-perishable. 
It  is  possible  therefore  to  systematize  the  methods  of  handling,  to 
assemble  the  product  in  a  central  packing  house,  and  to  grade  and 
pack  it  under  standard  rules.  Without  this  standardization  of  hand- 
lino-,  grading,  and  packing  no  co-operative  association  can  acquire  an 
asset  in  the  reputation  of  its  brands.  "With  standardization  it  can 
ncuiiire  a  reputation  which  makes  its  output  sought  after  and  for 
which  the  trade  will  pay  a  premium.  A  practical  difficulty  in  hand- 
ling a  co-operative  association  lies  in  the  fact  that  every  member  thinks 
that  he  produces  a  product  that  is  the  equal  or  superior  to  that  of 
every  other  member.  The  handling  of  this  condition  is  one  that  tests 
the  tact  of  the  most  successful  manager.  It  is  a  practical  condition, 
however,  and  not  a  theory  that  must  be  met  with  firmness,  with  justice 
and  with  patience  by  every  co-operative  association. 


15 


A  LIMITED  BIBLIOGRAPHY  ON  CO-OPE  RATION  IN  AGRICULTURE 

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Vol.   IV,  pp.   265-267.      New  York,    1909. 

,    Chapter  on  Community  Action  in  "The  Country-Life  Movement."      New  York,    1911. 

Bliss,  R.  K.,   Iowa  Extension  Bulletin,    7.      "Co-operative  Cow-Testing  Associations  in   Iowa.  ' 

Card.  F.  W.,  "Co-operative  Fire  Insurance  and  Telephones.  (In  Bailey,  L.  H.,  ed.  Cyclopedia 
of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  IV,  pp.  303-306.     New  York,    1909.) 

Chandler,  W.  H.,  "Co-operation  among  Fruit  Growers."  Bulletin  97,  University  of  Missouri, 
College  of  Agriculture,   1911. 

.    Committee    on    Agriculture,    Co-operative    Land    Mortgage    Banks,    Hearings,    May    29. 

1912.     Senate  Joint  Resolution  75. 

.    Commissioner  of  Corporations,   on  Cotton  Exchanges.   Report  of  the. 

Coulter.  J.  L.,  and  Morman,  B.  B.,  "Co-operation  in  the  Marketing  of  Farm  Produce." 
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-,    "Economic    Organization    of    Rural    Life."       Proceedings    of    Twelfth    Conference     for 

Education  in  the  South,    1909,  pp.    112-129. 

.    "Organization  among  Farmers  in  the  United  States."     New  Haven,  Conn.,  1909,  28  pp. 

(Yale  Review  Reprints,  No.   10). 

Coulter,  J.  L.,  "Co-operation  among  the  Farmers."      Sturgis  &  Walton  Co.,  1911. 

Fraser,  W.  J.,  "Dairy  Suggestions  from  European  Conditions."  Urbana,  111.,  1909.  Illinois 
Agricultural  Experiment   Station  Bulletin  140. 

Goddard,  L.  H.,  Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Circular  99. 

Hibbard,  B.  H.,  "Co-operation  in  the  Grain  Elevator  Business."  (In  Bailey,  L.  H.,  ed. 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  IV.  pp.  267-269.     New  York,   1909.) 

Holmes.  George  K.,  Systems  of  Marketing  Farm  Products  and  Demand  for  Such  Products 
at  Trade  Centers,  Report  98.     Office  of  the  Secretary,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Humphrey,  G.  C,  "Community  Breeders'  Associations  for  Dairy  Cattle  Improvement,"  1910. 
Bulletin  189,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Madison,  Wis. 

Hutt,  W.  N.,  "Marketing  Fruit  and  Truck  Crops."  (In  Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station.  Twelfth  Annual  Report,  March,  1907,  Bulletin  116,  pp.  211-257.  College 
Park,  Md.,  1906-07.) 

Lewis.  C.  I..  "The  Apple  from  Orchard  to  Market."  Bulletin  94,  Oregon  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station,  Corvallis,  Oregon,   1907.      (Treats  of  co-operative  fruit  organizations.) 

Paddock,  W.,  "Fruit  Growers'  Association."  Fort  Collins,  Col.,  1907.  Colorado  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  Bulletin   122. 

Pennington,  M.  E.,  "Studies  of  Poultry  from  Farm  to  Consumer."  Bureau  of  Chemistry 
Circular  64,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,   1910. 

Plunkett,  Sir  Horace,  "The  Rural  Life  Problem  of  the  United  States."  The  Macmillan  Com- 
pany, New  York,  1910. 

Powell,  G.  Harold,  "Co-operation  in  Agriculture."     The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York,  1913. 

,    "Co-operation   in   Handling  of   Fruit."      Year   Book   U.    S.    Department   of    Agriculture, 

1910,  pp.  391-406. 

.  California  Fruit  Growers'  Exchange,  in  Report  98.  Office  of  the  Secretary,  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture. 

Rasmussen,  Frederick,  "Cattle  Breeders'  Associations  in  Denmark."  Bureau  of  Animal  In- 
dustry, Bulletin   129.     U.   S.  Department  of  Agriculture,   February   17,    1911. 

Slocum,  Rob.  R.,  "Marketing  Eggs  through  the  Creamery."  Farmers'  Bulletin  445,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,   1910. 

Woll.  F.  W.,  "The  Wisconsin  Dairy  Cow  Competition,"  December,  1909.  Circular  of  Informa- 
tion 9. 


STATION    PUBLICATIONS    AVAILABLE    FOR    DISTRIBUTION 


REPORTS 

1897.      Resistant  Vines,   their  Selection,   Adaptation,   and  Grafting.      Appendix  to   Viticultural 
Report  for  1896. 

1902.  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment   Station  for   1898-1901. 

1903.  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment   Station  for  1901-03. 

1904.  Twenty-second  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for  1903-04. 


No. 


BULLETINS 

No. 


116.   The  California  Vine  Hopper. 

168.  Observations  on   Some  Vine  Diseases 

in  Sonoma  County. 

169.  Tolerance     of     the     Sugar    Beet     for 

Alkali. 

170.  Studies  in  Grasshopper  Control. 
174.  A  New  Wine-Cooling  Machine. 

177.  A   New  Method  of   Making  Dry   Red 

Wine. 

178.  Mosquito  Control. 

182.  Analysis    of    Paris    Green    and    Lead 

Arsenate.  Proposed  Insecticide  Law. 

183.  The   California   Tussock-moth. 

184.  Report    of    the    Plant    Pathologist    to 

July   1,    1906. 

185.  Report  of  Progress  in  Cereal  Investi- 

gations. 

186.  Oidium  of  the  Vine. 

195.   The  California  Grape  Root-worm. 

197.  Grape     Culture     in     California;     Im- 

proved   Methods    of    Wine-making; 
Yeast  from   California   Grapes. 

198.  The  Grape  Leaf-Hopper. 

199.  Bovine  Tuberculosis. 

203.   Report    of    the    Plant    Pathologist    to 
July   1,    1909. 


204. 

207. 
208. 
211. 

212. 
213. 
215. 

216. 


224. 
225. 
227. 
230. 
234. 

240. 
241. 
242. 
243. 

244. 
245. 
246. 


The    Dairy    Cow's    Record    and    the 

Stable. 
The  Control  of  the  Argentine  Ant. 
The  Late  Blight  of  Celery. 
How  to  Increase  the  Yield  of  Wheat 

in   California. 
California  White  Wheats. 
The  Principles  of  Wine-making. 
The    House    Fly    in    its    Relation    to 

Public  Health. 
A    Progress    Report    upon    Soil    and 

Climatic     Factors     Influencing     the 

Composition  of  Wheat. 
The  Production  of  the  Lima  Bean. 
Tolerance  of  Eucalyptus  for  Alkali. 
Grape  Vinegar. 
Enological    Investigations. 
Red     Spiders     and    Mites    of    Citrus 

Trees. 
Commercial  Fertilizers. 
Vine  Pruning  in  California.     Part  I. 
Humus   in   California   Soils. 
The     Intradermal     Test     for    Tuber- 
culosis in  Cattle  and  Hogs. 
Utilization  of  Waste   Oranges. 
Commercial  Fertilizers. 
Vine  Pruning  in  California,  Part   II. 


CIRCULARS 
No.  No. 

46.    Suggestions  for  Garden  Work  in  Cali-  101. 

fornia  Schools. 
62.   The   School   Garden   in  the  Course  of  102. 

Study.  106. 

65.  The   California   Insecticide   Law. 

66.  Insecticides   and    Insect   Control.  107. 

68.  The  Prevention   of  Hog  Cholera. 

69.  The  Extermination  of  Morning-Glory.  108. 

70.  Observation    of    the    Status    of    Corn  109. 

Growing   in    California. 

74.  Rice. 

75.  A  New  Leakage  Gauge.  110. 

76.  Hot   Room   Callusing.  111. 

79.  List  of   Insecticide  Dealers. 

80.  Boys'  and  Girls'  Clubs.  112. 

82.  The     Common     Ground     Squirrels     of  113. 

California. 

83.  Potato   Growing   Clubs.  114. 

84.  Mushrooms   and   Toadstools.  115. 

87.  Alfalfa.  116. 

88.  Advantages    to    the    Breeder    in    Test-  117. 

ing    his    Pure-Bred    Cows    for    the 

Register  of  Merit.  118. 

89.  Hog  Cholera  and  its  Prevention.  119. 

90.  Tuberculosis  in  Cattle  and  Hogs.  120. 

91.  Disinfection  on  the  Farm. 

92.  Infectious    Abortion    and    Sterility    in 

Cows.  121. 

98.   Plowing     and     Cultivating     Soils     in 

California.  122. 

LOO.    Pruning  Frosted  Citrus  Trees. 


Codling  Moth  Control  in  the  Sacra- 
mento Valley. 

The  Woolly  Aphis. 

Directions  for  using  Anti-Hog-Cholera 
Serum. 

Spraying  Walnut  Trees  for  Blight 
and  Aphis  Control. 

Grape  Juice. 

Community  or  Local  Extension  Work 
by  the  High  School  Agricultural 
Department. 

Green   Manuring  in    California. 

The  Use  of  Lime  and  Gypsum  on 
California  Soils. 

The  County  Farm  Adviser. 

Announcement    of    Correspondence 
Courses   in    Agriculture 

Increasing  the  Duty  of  Water. 

Grafting  Vinifera  Vineyards. 

Silk   Worm   Experiments. 

The  Selection  and  Cost  of  a  Small 
Pumping   Plant. 

The  Countv  Farm  Bureau. 

Winery  Directions. 

Potato  Growing  in  the  San  Joaquin 
and  Sacramento  Deltas  of  Cali- 
fornia. 

Some  Things  the  Prospective  Settler 
Should   Know. 

The  Management  of  Strawberry  Soils 
in   Pajaro  Valley. 


